page fifty four
Physical Anthropology Brief
Such a thing as a pure race does not exist and peoples of the world today are complex mixtures. Let a character be defined as any part of, or, as any condition associated with an individual or any number of its parts. Such characters are usually made up of factors or attributes, determined in the nucleii of cells as genes.
Mendeleian factors are limited to genes and give rise to the Mendel principlas of heredity, thus, the more general the character the more complex it is. Chromosomes are thread like bodies in the nucleus of a cell each carrying its certain grouping of genes, which appear to be duplicates of each other and produce identical effects. Medelian factors follow in the Mendel pattern of inheritance as either present or absent — e.g. the blood factors A, B, and O; or they may appear as dominant and recesive, the ratio being 3:11. A peculiar example of this is the absense of human h;ands and feet. Mohr gives a case where this character acts as a single factor controled by a single gene—the mother normal, and father deformed and the three children all deformed as the father.
Genes are arranged in serial fashion in the structure called chromosomes. Each species has its required number of chromosomes, that carry through a line of descent quite permanently. The human body has 48,
page fifty five
half of which are derived from the mother and half from the father.
One of this set of chromosomes is a sex chromosome and for simplicity, let us say, it acts as a Mendelian present and absent factor. These sex chromosomes are represented as x and y, in which x denotes presence and y, their absence. Hence, if an embryo is xx it is a girl if wy a boy; thus the ratio of male and female is about 1:1. Linkage appears when a chromosome is carried forward in a line of descent because it takes with it a certain grouping of genes. It is obvious, that complex characters become modified as the chromosomes become regrouped from time to time in a line of descent; but genes apear linked for that particular chromosome throughout that descent. The gene for color blindness (red-green) is on the, x, or sex chromosome and is a recessive.
girl girl boy boy
normal color B color B normal
xx - xx(c) x(c)x(c) x(c)y xy
A girl carries one each of the x chromosomes of her father and mother but a boy only one x chromosome fo his mother. Mutations are abrupt change or modification in heredity and seldom occur in humans. They may be due to addition or loss of genes or a sort of entanglement of chromosomes which alters certain linkage groups. Not all characters are Mendelian but the factors that sustain
page fifty six
them are Mendelian.
The A, B, O Blood Groups
Each person must possess some combination of two of these genes of which six different combinations are possible—
OO, AA, AO, BB, BO and AB. The O acts as a recessive to either A or B and A and B are either present or absent. "It has been found from experience that a serious, or indeed often a fatal reaction may result from such a transfusion especially if much of the incompatible blood is injected. It is for this reason that blood transfusions can be preformed safely only when the blood groups of the individuals have been previously determined. The possibility of transfusion which are thus allowable are shown in the accompanying scheme." It must be pointed out that the O group is not always the 'universal donor.'
Physical Anthropology Brief
Such a thing as a pure race does not exist and peoples of the world today are complex mixtures. Let a character be defined as any part of, or, as any condition associated with an individual or any number of its parts. Such characters are usually made up of factors or attributes, determined in the nucleii of cells as genes.
Mendeleian factors are limited to genes and give rise to the Mendel principlas of heredity, thus, the more general the character the more complex it is. Chromosomes are thread like bodies in the nucleus of a cell each carrying its certain grouping of genes, which appear to be duplicates of each other and produce identical effects. Medelian factors follow in the Mendel pattern of inheritance as either present or absent — e.g. the blood factors A, B, and O; or they may appear as dominant and recesive, the ratio being 3:11. A peculiar example of this is the absense of human h;ands and feet. Mohr gives a case where this character acts as a single factor controled by a single gene—the mother normal, and father deformed and the three children all deformed as the father.
Genes are arranged in serial fashion in the structure called chromosomes. Each species has its required number of chromosomes, that carry through a line of descent quite permanently. The human body has 48,
page fifty five
half of which are derived from the mother and half from the father.
One of this set of chromosomes is a sex chromosome and for simplicity, let us say, it acts as a Mendelian present and absent factor. These sex chromosomes are represented as x and y, in which x denotes presence and y, their absence. Hence, if an embryo is xx it is a girl if wy a boy; thus the ratio of male and female is about 1:1. Linkage appears when a chromosome is carried forward in a line of descent because it takes with it a certain grouping of genes. It is obvious, that complex characters become modified as the chromosomes become regrouped from time to time in a line of descent; but genes apear linked for that particular chromosome throughout that descent. The gene for color blindness (red-green) is on the, x, or sex chromosome and is a recessive.
girl girl boy boy
normal color B color B normal
xx - xx(c) x(c)x(c) x(c)y xy
A girl carries one each of the x chromosomes of her father and mother but a boy only one x chromosome fo his mother. Mutations are abrupt change or modification in heredity and seldom occur in humans. They may be due to addition or loss of genes or a sort of entanglement of chromosomes which alters certain linkage groups. Not all characters are Mendelian but the factors that sustain
page fifty six
them are Mendelian.
The A, B, O Blood Groups
Each person must possess some combination of two of these genes of which six different combinations are possible—
OO, AA, AO, BB, BO and AB. The O acts as a recessive to either A or B and A and B are either present or absent. "It has been found from experience that a serious, or indeed often a fatal reaction may result from such a transfusion especially if much of the incompatible blood is injected. It is for this reason that blood transfusions can be preformed safely only when the blood groups of the individuals have been previously determined. The possibility of transfusion which are thus allowable are shown in the accompanying scheme." It must be pointed out that the O group is not always the 'universal donor.'
All races of people support the three blood groups though not all in the same proportion.
"It was taken for granted that the blood groups of peoples of the past could not be determined since all that ever remains of them are skeletons or bloodless mumies, but in actual fact even these dry relics may sometimes be made to reveal their blood groups. The chemical substances A and B are not restricted to the red cells of the indicidual, but exists throughout his whole body, in practically all his cells and tissues, fluids and they are rather unusually stable antigens. They resist drying, heating and exposure to a number of drastic chemical reagents which would quickly inactivate protin antigens."
For a long time there has been a debate as to the relative importance of heredity and environment in human lives. Self perfection begins where heredity leaves off, hence, our duty is to study to better our environment and understanding and that of our fellow beings.
"The nasal index (breadth of nose x 100 divided by the height of nose has long been used as one of the means of distinguishing races. It is probably a highly adaptive character, and its mode of inheritance is still far from
clear."
Head Form
About 100 yrs. ago the Swedish anatomist Andre Retzius discoved that the relation between breadth and length of the brain case varies not so much between individuals as it did between different human groups or races Hence, the "Cephalic index" or measurements of head forms, offers the advantageous index that seems to remain almost constant after infancy. There three classes of skulls are dolichoocephalic, brachycephalic and mesocephalic.
page fifty eight
Skulls are dolichocephalic if the index breadth divided by length expressed as percentage is below 75, brachycephalic if over 80 and between these limits are mesocephalic. There characters are not Mendelian and may be composed of many factors.
North Central Mongloid Negroid
Character Europe Europe Yellow Black
____________________________________________________________
Skull length long short short long
" breadth narrow broad broad narrow
" height high high middle low
Some Mendelian Characteristics in Man
Skin, hair nails and teeth
____________________________________________________________
Dominant Recessive
1) Black Skin (two genes) 1) White skin
incomplete dominance
2) Pibald (skin and hair 2) One color
spotted with white)
3) White forelock 3) One color
4) Dark hair (several genes) 4) Light hair
5) Non red hair 5) Red Hair
6) Dark skin (several genes) 6) White skin
7) Freckles 7) No freckles
8) Pigmented skin, hair and eyes 8) Albino
9) Curly hair (either hybrid 9) Straight hair
or wavy)
10) Woolly hair (negroid type) 10) Straight hair or non wooly hair
11) Woolly hair (Caucasoid type) 11) Non woolly hair
12) Abundant body hair 12) Little body hair
(several genes)
13) Normal 13) Hairless (Hypotrichosis)
14) Hairless (congenial 14) Normal
hypotrichosis)
page fifty nine
Dominant Recessive
15) Early baldness (dominant 15) Normal
in male)
16) Scaly skin (Ichthyosis) 16) Normal
17) Thick skin (Tylosis) 17) Normal
18) Absent teeth (various types) 18) Normal
19) Defective dentin 19) Normal
(opalescent teeth)
20) Free ear lobes 20) Adherent ear lobes
Eyes
21) Brown 21) Blue or Grey
22) Hazel 22) Blue or Grey
23) Pigmented iris 23) Albino
24) "Mongolian fold" 24) No fold
25) Drooping eyelids (Ptosis) 25) Normal
26) Near sightedness 26) Normal
(Myopia, large cornea)
27) Normal 27) Near sightedness
28) Farsightedness 28) Normal
(Hyperopia, short eyeball)
29) Astigmatism (cornea 29) Normal
not sherical)
30) Cataract (opaque lens) 30) Normal
31) Glaucomea (excessive 31) Normal
presssure in eyeball)
Skelton and Muscles
32) Short Stature 32) Tall
(several genes)
33) Dwarfism (achondroposis) 33) Normal
34) Midget (ateliosis, 34) Normal
two genes?)
35) Short broad skull 35) Normal
(several genes)
36) Extra digits (polydactly) 36) Normal
37) Split hand ("lobster claw") 37) Normal
38) Hare lip and cleft palate 38) Normal
(also a recessive)
39) Rupture, susceptibility to 39) Normal
40) Absent long palmar muscle 40) Normal
Circulatory and Respiratory System
41) Hemolytic jaundice 41) Normal
42) Nosebleed and blood cysts 42) Normal
(Telangiectases)
43) Varicose veins 43) Normal
and hemorrhoids
44) Hereditary dropsy (Edema) 44) Normal
45) High blood pressure 45) Normal
(Hypertension)
46) Allergy 46) Normal
47) Resistance to tuberculosis 47) Susceptibility to T.B.
Excretory System
48) Polycystic kidney 48) Normal
49) Diabetes incipidus 49) Normal
Endocrine Glands
50) Diabetes mellitus 50) Normal
Digestive System
51) Normal 51) Phyloric stenosis
52) Ulcers (mode of inheritance uncertain)
53) Enlarged colon 53) Normal
(Hirschsprung's disease)
Reproductive System
54) Misplaced penis opening 54) Normal
(Hypospadias)
Cancer & other Malignant Tumors
55) Normal 55) Xeroderma pigmentasum
56) von Ricklinghausen's dissease 56) Normal
57) Stomach cancer ? 57) Normal
58) Normal 58) Retinal glioma
Nervous System
59) Taster (of compound 59) non tasters (smell not bitter)
Phenyl-thio-carbanide)
60) Normal 60) Congenital deafness
61) Auditory nerfe atrophy 61) Normal
(wasting away)
62) Otosclerosis deafness 62) Normal
63) Hunington's chorea 63) Normal
64) Normal (or mild type dominant) 64) Feeble mindedness
65) Normal 65) Amaurotic idiocy (loss of mind)
66) Manaic-depressive phycosis 66) Normal
Special Talent Dominance uncertain
Musical ability
Drawing painting sculpture
Mathematical ability
"It was taken for granted that the blood groups of peoples of the past could not be determined since all that ever remains of them are skeletons or bloodless mumies, but in actual fact even these dry relics may sometimes be made to reveal their blood groups. The chemical substances A and B are not restricted to the red cells of the indicidual, but exists throughout his whole body, in practically all his cells and tissues, fluids and they are rather unusually stable antigens. They resist drying, heating and exposure to a number of drastic chemical reagents which would quickly inactivate protin antigens."
For a long time there has been a debate as to the relative importance of heredity and environment in human lives. Self perfection begins where heredity leaves off, hence, our duty is to study to better our environment and understanding and that of our fellow beings.
"The nasal index (breadth of nose x 100 divided by the height of nose has long been used as one of the means of distinguishing races. It is probably a highly adaptive character, and its mode of inheritance is still far from
clear."
About 100 yrs. ago the Swedish anatomist Andre Retzius discoved that the relation between breadth and length of the brain case varies not so much between individuals as it did between different human groups or races Hence, the "Cephalic index" or measurements of head forms, offers the advantageous index that seems to remain almost constant after infancy. There three classes of skulls are dolichoocephalic, brachycephalic and mesocephalic.
page fifty eight
Skulls are dolichocephalic if the index breadth divided by length expressed as percentage is below 75, brachycephalic if over 80 and between these limits are mesocephalic. There characters are not Mendelian and may be composed of many factors.
North Central Mongloid Negroid
Character Europe Europe Yellow Black
______________________________
Skull length long short short long
" breadth narrow broad broad narrow
" height high high middle low
Some Mendelian Characteristics in Man
______________________________
Dominant
1) Black Skin (two genes) 1) White skin
incomplete dominance
2) Pibald (skin and hair 2) One color
spotted with white)
3) White forelock
4) Dark hair (several genes) 4) Light hair
5) Non red hair
6) Dark skin (several genes) 6) White skin
7) Freckles
8) Pigmented skin, hair and eyes 8) Albino
9) Curly hair (either hybrid 9) Straight hair
or wavy)
10) Woolly hair (negroid type) 10) Straight hair or non wooly hair
11) Woolly hair (Caucasoid type) 11) Non woolly hair
12) Abundant body hair 12) Little body hair
(several genes)
13) Normal
14) Hairless (congenial 14) Normal
hypotrichosis)
page fifty nine
Dominant
15) Early baldness (dominant 15) Normal
in male)
16) Scaly skin (Ichthyosis) 16) Normal
17) Thick skin (Tylosis) 17) Normal
18) Absent teeth (various types) 18) Normal
19) Defective dentin 19) Normal
(opalescent teeth)
20) Free ear lobes 20) Adherent ear lobes
Eyes
21) Brown
22) Hazel
23) Pigmented iris 23) Albino
24) "Mongolian fold" 24) No fold
25) Drooping eyelids (Ptosis) 25) Normal
26) Near sightedness 26) Normal
(Myopia, large cornea)
27) Normal
28) Farsightedness
(Hyperopia, short eyeball)
29) Astigmatism (cornea 29) Normal
not sherical)
30) Cataract (opaque lens) 30) Normal
31) Glaucomea (excessive 31) Normal
presssure in eyeball)
Skelton and Muscles
32) Short Stature
(several genes)
33) Dwarfism (achondroposis) 33) Normal
34) Midget (ateliosis, 34) Normal
two genes?)
35) Short broad skull 35) Normal
(several genes)
36) Extra digits (polydactly) 36) Normal
37) Split hand ("lobster claw") 37) Normal
38) Hare lip and cleft palate 38) Normal
(also a recessive)
39) Rupture, susceptibility to 39) Normal
40) Absent long palmar muscle 40) Normal
Circulatory and Respiratory System
41) Hemolytic jaundice 41) Normal
42) Nosebleed and blood cysts 42) Normal
(Telangiectases)
43) Varicose veins 43) Normal
and hemorrhoids
44) Hereditary dropsy (Edema) 44) Normal
45) High blood pressure 45) Normal
(Hypertension)
46) Allergy
47) Resistance to tuberculosis 47) Susceptibility to T.B.
48) Polycystic kidney 48) Normal
49) Diabetes incipidus 49) Normal
50) Diabetes mellitus 50) Normal
51) Normal
52) Ulcers (mode of inheritance uncertain)
53) Enlarged colon
(Hirschsprung's disease)
Reproductive System
54) Misplaced penis opening 54) Normal
(Hypospadias)
Cancer & other Malignant Tumors
55) Normal
56) von Ricklinghausen's dissease 56) Normal
57) Stomach cancer ? 57) Normal
58) Normal
Nervous System
59) Taster (of compound 59) non tasters (smell not bitter)
Phenyl-thio-carbanide)
60) Normal
61) Auditory nerfe atrophy 61) Normal
(wasting away)
62) Otosclerosis deafness 62) Normal
63) Hunington's chorea 63) Normal
64) Normal (or mild type dominant) 64) Feeble mindedness
65) Normal
66) Manaic-depressive phycosis 66) Normal
Special Talent Dominance uncertain
